Child Development and Attachment Theory

In this essay I will critically consider how social workers can use their understanding of Child Development and Attachment Theory in the assessment of children and families. To do this I will first discuss the aims of assessment in order to talk about how Development and Attachment theory can be used by social workers to meet these aims as well as the limitations of these theories. In order to critically discuss the use of Developmental and Attachment Theory in assessment it is first important to understand what assessment is, and what its aims are.The assessment of children and families is nothing new but until the late 1970s it was something that was generally perceived to be a task of when children were taken into care. In 1981 it was recommended that a boarder approach should be used for children who required support but it was not until 1988 that the government produced practice guidance on assessment (Horwath, 2010). The Children Act 1989 gave local authorities the duty of wor king with and supporting carers and families of ‘children in need’ defined under Part III section 17 of the Act.The focus was not just on protecting children from harm, but also promoting their welfare. In 1997 the Labour Government came into power and in 1998 announced the development of a national assessment framework as part of the Governments aim to modernise services and improve outcomes for children (Horwath, 2010). In 2000 The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was published and emphasised the importance of a systematic and comprehensive assessment of children and their families (Bingley-Miller and Bentovim, 2003).Its is important to note that the framework is not meant to be a checklist but rather a framework that can be used to suit individual circumstances (Gray 2002), the framework is not just for social workers but has been constructed to assist practitioners in all disciplines think about what is happening to a child and the family. The Framework emphasises the importance of children’s development and promoting and safeguarding their welfare by preventing developmental impairment (Rose, 2010).The purpose of the framework is to see both the inner and outer worlds of children and to help the practitioner explore these worlds with the child, families and others involved and come to an agreement about what is happening and what support is needed. The framework has been modelled as a triangle and represents three domains to show the key aspects of the child’s inner and outer world, as shown below the triangle shows the importance of the child’s development needs, parenting capacity and family and environmental factors.

Al Capone Revision

Al Capone: Revision 0730 HIST 2020-010 4-23-07 Many gangsters have made it in the history books the past 100 years: Billy the Kid, and John Gotti just to name a few. But none matched the notoriety that Al Capone had. Al Capone, short for Alphonsus Capone his birth name, was born on January 17, 1899 in Brooklyn, New York. # Capone grew up with a troubled childhood. After dropping at of school in the sixth grade, Capone got in several gangs of ruffians around town, but nothing too serious. Capone got sick of it and then became a member of the Five Points gang, led by Frankie Yale. After his stint with Yale’s gang, he was sent to Johnny Torrio‘s gang, called the James Street Gang. From 1925 to 1931, Capone and his gangs ruled the streets of Chicago with their vicious gangster ways. # Growing up in the early 1900‘s, you could say Capone had a rough time with it. Torrio soon noticed the talent this young ruffian had and convinced him to with to Chicago to work with his uncle who was one of the cities main concerns with his prostitutes and gambling rings. Al Capone was soon to be Chicago’s, better yet America’s, most notorious gangster and greatest symbol of illegal activities which prevented the city’s growth because it was known as the lawless city. Capone’s soon to be mega-network came through Torrio’s business. They were the pioneers in the selling of illegal alcohol. Capone had power and wealth because he sold illegal alcohol, moonshine, throughout Chicago. After Torrio was shot and badly wounded by a rival gang, this left the rising star, Capone, to take over the thriving business that they had started. Now, Capone was on top the of world at the tender age of only 26. Although vicious, Capone did have somewhat of a good heart when he helped homeless people in Chicago with the first soup kitchen in 1929 after the stock market crash. # Although Capone did help starving people in Chicago, he was a nuisance that needed to be stopped. This, to an extent, as was why the FBI and many other law enforcement agencies were formed. Several law enforcement agencies were built around the area because of crime, and we benefit from it today because if it weren’t for a big time mobster like Capone, we might not have had the law enforcement agencies that we have today. Capone‘s image was seen not only through the eyes of Americans but through the eyes of the world and. People all over the globe thought he was just another thug gangster involved in organized crime. Capone had never done any major time for the crimes he did. Capone walked on water in Chicago, he was so powerful. That’s probably why he decided to open the soup kitchens to get people to like him more. Although this was a good act of respect from Capone, the respect sure enough came tumbling down after his St. Valentines Day Massacre. On Feb. 14, 1929, the St. Valentines Day Massacre made a major impact on the U. S. because it was the most vicious violence they had ever witnessed. # Capone had an alibi for the murder, which he always did. The St. Valentines Day Massacre started when Capon’s gang tricked the Moran gang into thinking it was a police raid when really it was Capone’s gang dressed like police. # As the men were staring at the wall scared of being arrested, the gang broke out with a lead shower of bullets into the backs of the seven members. Obviously, Capone had set this up to take down the rival gangs to strengthen his regime. Although Capone took out an essential part of the gang, Bugs, the leader escaped after seeing the police uniforms, thinking he was getting busted. After the Massacre, Capone and his wife Mary and their children moved to Florida because of the endangerment that Capone had put on them for not killing Bugs. After the Massacre, Capone soon came known as the gangster of the 20’s. After the events of the St. Valentines Day massacre, Capone’s gang received more publicity than any other gang had received before this time. After getting out publicly in Chicago, it was soon on a national spotlight. Capone was now a target of writers all across America. In 1929 While Capone was called before a grand jury in Chicago, little did he know about the powerful people that were teaming up to try to take down this criminal. Capone thought that is was about all of the murders he had committed and so forth. Capone left a mark from this massacre that will be remembered by the United States forever and will sketch his name in as one the most ruthless gangster’s of all time. Capone’s impact of the nation at this time was monumental and glamorized by certain people in his society. Capone’s actions and organizations were getting out of control and soon had to be reckoned with. His way affected people in the Chicago area because of his bad gangster activity as well with his soup kitchens which was one of the slim positive influences he had. In 1930, Capone’s empire slowly but surely flourished after many people working long and hard found a flaw with him, tax evasion. Al Capone was tried on October 17, 1931, when he was finally imprisoned for five of 22 counts of tax evasion from 1925-1929. # Everyone thought that you didn’t pay taxes if you earned the money illegally until Capone made an example for everybody. In May, 1932, Capone was sent to Atlanta to serve his 11-year sentence. As well as those charges, he also didn’t file tax returns for 1928 and 1929. Capone had to pay $50,000 in fines for the counts of tax evasion, a misdemeanor for not filing tax returns, as well as violating prohibition laws. He also had $7,692 in court cost. # Capone had no other choice but to throw in the flag. His life as a gangster was over. In May 1932, Capone started his 11-year sentence in Atlanta which was one of the roughest prisons in America at the time. While in prison, Capone managed to smuggle in a couple thousand dollars and paid the guards off while furnishing his cell with a mirrors, typewriter, rugs, and a set of the Encyclopedia Britannica. # Capone was still in control because of the street credit that he obviously still had. Capone was soon taken to Alcatraz where he would be monitored frequently. Alcatraz wasn’t any walk in the park. It was highly monitored where Capone was nothing else but another inmate. Capone was helpless now. Although helpless, Capone did cash in on good behavior and was granted some time off his sentence for good behavior. Capone, again, gave up on the rebellious life and started acting the way the he was meant to from the start. Capone got along so well with everyone that he actually had time cut off for bad behavior. Although Capone was calm himself, he did get into several fights with other inmates but none proved to be instigated by him. While working down in the prison basement, Capone got stabbed by another inmate while standing in line to get a haircut. He was sent to the penitentiary hospital were he stayed for several days soon to be released with a minor wound. Capone was finally released from Alcatraz on January 6, 1939. He then headed to the Federal Correctional Institution at Terminal Island in California where he stayed until November 16 of that year to serve his one-year misdemeanor charge. # Capone returned to his mansion in Palm Island, Florida, after his release. The big, bad mobster from the 20’s and 30’s was slowly deteriorating. His overall body strength, weight, and mindset were all dropping at a rapid pace. Capone had gotten syphilis when he was younger and never did anything about it which led to dementia. On January 21, 1947, Capone had a apoplectic stroke and was out for several days. Finally regaining consciousness, Capone the suffered from pneumonia three days later and went into a cardiac arrest which was probably all linked to his syphilis. Capone was buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery in Chicago between his parents but then was moved to Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois. # Capone was the pioneer of crime in America. We have our Jesse James and such but this wa s a different criminal. He was smart. Smart enough to get away from murder trials but unlucky enough and rich enough to become a victim of his own success. â€Å"Scarface† will always be remembered as the greatest mobster in the history of America. Bibliography â€Å"Al Capone. † Chicago Historical Society. http://www. chicagohs. org/history/capone. html [assessed April 14, 2007]. â€Å"Al â€Å"Scarface† Capone. † Alcatraz History. http://www. alcatrazhistory. com/cap1. htm [assessed April 14, 2007]. â€Å"Al Capone. † Wikipedia. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Al_Capone [assessed April 14, 2007]. â€Å"Al Capone. Made in America. † Crime Library. http://www. crimelibrary. com/gangsters_outlaws/mob_bosses/capone/index_1. htm [assessed April 14, 2007]. â€Å"Famous Cases. † FBI History. http://www. fbi. gov/libref/historic/famcases/capone/capone. htm [assessed April 14, 2007].

Policy advocacy to fight HIV discrimination and stigma Essay

Policy advocacy to fight HIV discrimination and stigma - Essay Example The HIV/AIDS-related stigma refers to the negative attitudes, prejudice or maltreatment that is directed at HIV infected people. Some of the consequences that are brought about by discrimination include being shunned by relatives and general community. It also takes the form of being maltreated in the healthcare, education institution and lack of rights. The stigma may also result in the psychological damage of the concerned individual. With increased development of drugs that could improve the living condition of people living with HIV, research has shown that stigma is still the single most barriers to the policy actions of governments. It is, therefore, necessary to formulate and implement a policy that would reduce the stigma associated with HIV. Stigma is the main reason why people are afraid to go the health institutions to determine if they are infected or not. One may, therefore, suspect that they are infected but would prefer to stay in denial so that he or she may not be pu blicly humiliated. The fear of the social disgrace from both friends and general society makes the HIV become a killer disease despite the availability of retroviral medicines. It is the view of this paper that effective sex and HIV education policy needs to be established to prevent stigma. This would be a more effective way of preventing the devastation of AIDS epidemic in the USA as it would not only increase awareness of the scourge but equip the young people with skills to provide support to the infected and affected.

Rehabilitation Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rehabilitation - Thesis Example As instances of such failure are gradually becoming more conspicuous with the progress of time, opinions against rehabilitating criminals are coming up. The main point of argument may be stated as follows - if rehabilitation could have really been effective then there would not have been increase in the rate of crime across the nation. Such argument definitely has a strong foundation. A 2007 Reuters report specifies, since 2000 onwards, total number of prisoners in the United States has reached to the optimum level. The report announces, â€Å"The United States, which has the most prisoners of any country in the world, last year, recorded the largest increase in the number of people in prisons and jails since 2000 †¦. It said the nations prison and jail populations increased by more than 62,000 inmates, or 2.8 percent, to about 2,245,000 inmates in the 12-month period that ended on June 30, 2006. It was the biggest jump in numbers and percentage change in six years. Criminal ju stice experts have attributed the record U.S. prison population to tough sentencing laws, record numbers of drug offenders and high crimes rates.† (Vicini) If rehabilitation could have really been effective then there would not have been increasing rate of criminal activism and society would have experienced a far more stable condition. Failure of the process has made the whole system a subject of vigorous questioning whether rehabilitation process of criminal should be retained or it needs to be abolished immediately. Personally, I feel that rehabilitation is not, in any way, contributing towards changing the behavioral aspects of criminal, even after they undergo regular counseling process. There are certain reasons for me to pursue with such opinion. My basic argument concentrates on the issue regarding the use of a method if it fails to fulfill the purpose that it actually is designed to serve. It is becoming increasingly important for us to reach a specific

Lean management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lean management - Essay Example Five principles of lean management includes specify value and identifying the customers, finding the value stream, make value flow, respond to customer pull and seek perfection (Hines, 2010). Increase in consumer demand for quality and fierce competition has created a significant impact on fast food markets. Toyota Motor Company was the first business corporation to extensively develop the concept of lean management in the late 1970s. The occurrence of global recession has created a detrimental effect on organization to reduce costs. McDonald’s have set their sights on nullifying the issue by implementation of lean management. A set of key practices have been utilized by McDonalds to deliver effective service to the customers. Overproduction, inventory, motion, wasting time, defectives and transport are the seven sources of waste that are required to be eliminated. Overproduction is one of the sources that are eliminated by McDonalds by introduction of new system to prepare limited stocks of sides, salad, ingredients and patties to combine them in to finished product. The lessening of duration of the process to 3 minutes has reduced the risk of overproduction. The organization succeeded to maintain the overall production cycle time between 1 and 15 minutes, which enhances customer satisfaction and waste reduction (Muller, 2012). One of the vital elements that company should focus on is continuous improvement by sharing best practice and regular audits. This links with the principle of pursuing perfection. The set of ideas of lean philosophy are no waste and perfect quality can be achieved by application of this process. An opportunity of wastage and cost is incurred by holding stock. McDonaldscan eliminate all inventories by implementation of sophisticated stock control system. The excess handling of goods has resulted in to occurrence of

Brand Aston Martin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Brand Aston Martin - Essay Example Commonly, brands in all markets are evaluated by referring to their attributes. These attributes can be classified into two main categories: symbolic and functional (Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2009, p.186). Symbolic attributes refer to the intangible benefits that a brand can offer to consumers; for example, a mobile phone of a particular brand can be related to a specific social status of the owner. Functional attributes refer to technical/ practical benefits of a brand, meaning the functional benefits that a brand can offer to consumers (Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2009, p.186); the increased functionality of a mobile phone of a brand compared to the similar device of another brand is a common example of functional attribute (Sinkovics & Ghauri, 2009, p.186). Emotional attributes have also become an important category of brand attributes. Emotional attributes reflect ‘the feelings of consumers about a retail brand’ (Floor 2006, p.222). These feelings can be influenced by the function al attributes of the brand (Floor 2006, p.222); still, emotional attributes are depended on all aspects of a brand, as included in the brand personality. Functional, emotional and symbolic attributes are often used for describing a brand’s personality (Floor 2006, p.222). The functional and emotional attributes of brand Aston Martin can be characterized as quite significant. These attributes could be described as follows: in terms of their performance, Aston Martin cars have been classified as of exceptional value.

Supply, Demand and Equilibrium Price Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Supply, Demand and Equilibrium Price - Essay Example She does nothing but allows the market forces to increase the prices. This way the market demand curve will move from D to D2. A new equilibrium will now be formed as consequence where Supply curve meets D2 curve. At this stage the quantity will be great than the initial equilibrium quantity demanded will be 8000 and the prices will be greater $4.5 depending on the strength of the market demand. Some of the increased demand will be absorbed by the increase in price and equilibrium quantity supplied to the market will remain 8000 pies. This will result in increase in revenue for Mrs. Acres and consequently the increase the profits. Therefore, Mrs. Acres will choose this option if other options are not yielding better results than this one in terms of profits and revenue. However, by choosing this option her position will be vulnerable in the long-run and she can expect to lose in the broad perspective. In the long-run, high prices will encourage competition to enter the market and tak e some of the market share by keeping prices lower than competitors. As a result of this, in the long-run, her quantity supplied will be less than 8000, as charging high price will result in market share being lost to consumers. Similarly, as a result her sales may also experience a negative trend and she may lose out in the long run by raising prices. In other words, after the initial gain of increased revenue followed by increased, prices she may end up inviting a lot of competition to the industry and may lose out in the long run. The price of the pies will decline and come back to the normal equilibrium price of $4.5. In the long-run, the equilibrium price and quantity will be different because new companies can enter the market, whereas in the short-run, no new firms can enter the market. As a result of this long-run effects of this will be different than short run effects. Case 2: Mrs. Acres decides to increase supply to meet additional demand Case 2: Mrs. Acres meets the Market Demand In this option suppose, the initial quantity is again 8000, represented by the label q1 on the diagram at a place where demand and supply meet. However, in order to meet the demand, Mr. Acres decides to increase the staff and in turn the supply. This will mean that there will be not increase in the price but the quantity demanded will now rise to q2, which is greater than 8000 pie. In the long-run, her sales and price will remain constant depending on the market trend and depending on the type of competition that exist in the market. However, since she is meeting demand there is no room for competitors to enter the market unless they come up with an extraordinary product. Therefore, by choosing this option she is discouraging the competition in the market which is going to keep her profits and revenues constant in the long run also and she may continue to enjoy the success in the long-run also. And the best thing here is that she will have to share profits with no one like she has to do in the option 3. Here, in the long-run, no new company can enter the market because there is no space in the market as Shelly Acres is operating under the efficient conditions of both allocative and productive efficiency as a result in the long-run, there will be no other effect and short-run conditions will prevail. If the

The Global Pharmaceutical Industry Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Global Pharmaceutical Industry - Case Study Example The global pharmaceutical industry is quite unusual and in various geographic markets there happens to only one powerful buyer, i.e. the government. During the 80s and 90s the governments round the globe started to concentrate on the pharmaceuticals as some kind of an easy target in order to control the expenditures related to healthcare and get greater value for money. These typed of activities by the governments is just a reflection of the cultural differences. The industry in true sense has got global and hence the employment and ownership has become concentrated in very few countries. Regulators have quite often been challenged to reduce the overburdening of the growing areas related to the area of biotechnology research.   There are also increasing pressure from inter country pricing inequality as well as parallel trade. One such example would the difference between USA and Canada (Henry, 2008, p. 89).Economic ForcesPatients usually have had very little influence on the choice of price and products, because the doctors make the prescription. Again the medical practitioners tend to favor branded products. On the other hand the incentives to buy products got decreased as the costs were reimbursed or assumed by the insurers or the heath care authorities. The supply of the pharmaceutical market is still quite fragmented as very few companies are holding a share of more than 11%-20%. The industry has the presence of some strong international player’s bases in France, Japan and India in the form of Ranbaxy.... One such example would the difference between USA and Canada (Henry, 2008, p. 89). Economic Forces Patients usually have had very little influence on the choice of price and products, because the doctors make the prescription. Again the medical practitioners tend to favor branded products. On the other hand the incentives to buy products got decreased as the costs were reimbursed or assumed by the insurers or the heath care authorities. The supply of the pharmaceutical market is still quite fragmented as very few companies are holding a share of more than 11%-20%. The industry has the presence of some strong international player’s bases in France, Japan and India in the form of Ranbaxy. However, the recent economic down turn has meant that the companies had to reduce the spending on R&D and as a result number of new products that were supposed to reach the market has fallen (Churchill, 2009, p.211). Social Forces The baby boom generation is approaching retirement and there hav e been new efforts on the part of the companies to serve the purpose of treatment of the elderly. The end users are now a lot better informed about the products. The rise of the internet has helped the customers to get valuable info about pharmacy based products quite easily. Consumers have become a lot educated and as a result a lot more demanding (Brown, 2009, p. 209). Technological Forces Technological factors can actually lower the market entry barriers and reduce the efficient production levels and influence the outsourcing decisions. Some of the factors include the R&D activities, rate of technology change and technology incentives. One of the major implications of the technological development has been the development of drugs that can help

Dance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dance - Assignment Example ally correct in its representation; sometimes a dance may lack veracity and end up either misrepresenting or marginalizing cultural assumptions construed within or without its motions. This paper will focus on representation vs. misrepresentation of cultural identities through the two videos analyzed. For them to be effective, they must be searched for authenticity which can be identified through the fact that they portray realistic and historically valid view points and they are successful in delivering their message and creating the impression they were intended to. While conceding that a dance in many cases serves to center the focus on a specific culture or cultural outlook on stage, it can also be conversely used to marginalize. The world of contemporary and even ex post facto performances has been characterized by stereotypes most concerning racial identities and perceptions. In many cases, this has resulted in either marginalizing or misrepresenting cultural outlooks and in th is paper, the extent to which the two dances cited either represent or misrepresent cultural issues or fail to do so will be examined. The west side captures the gang conflict that characterizes America in the 50’s with white Caucasian gangs fighting with their Puerto Rican counterparts supposedly for dominance in the streets. The dance was initially brought to the stage by writers and producers whose intent was to recreate a modern day Romeo and Juliet story. Their key focus was the prejudices that faced ethical, racial and religious groups in the United States during this period. While in the case of Romeo and Juliet, it was the Montagues vs. the Capulets, on the other hand, in the West side story, it was the two leading gangs in New York, Sharks vs. Jets. These were representative of the middle class New York population vs. the influx of Puerto Rican and Mexican families that were taking a hold in what was traditionally â€Å"white turf†(Cohen). Throughout the story, racial and

Aluminum smelter in South Africa Essay Example for Free

Aluminum smelter in South Africa Essay We recommend you do not build this new Greenfield primary aluminum smelter in South Africa. In order to achieve a 15% ROI on your investment, you require a long-term average price of $1500 for aluminum. We have estimated that demand for primary aluminum in 5 years will be at $20bn, which will support a market price of around $1490. This heavily builds on the assumption that aluminum inventories will be zero by that time, which depends on a successful implementation of the international Memorandum of Understanding. Historically these non-binding agreements have been very hard to enforce, and so a scenario where supply is far greater than demand is likely, leading to large inventories and lower prices. It is because of this uncertainty that we recommend you do not build the plant. Back-up calculations: 1.ROI calculation: Given investment costs of $1.6bn, full capacity of 466,000 t/year and an ROI requirement of 15%, we calculated that you require a price of $1,500 per ton of aluminum. 2.In the short run, all smelters need to cover variable costs, which include electricity, alumina, other material costs and freight cost. In the long-run, they need to cover total costs. a.The current price ($1,100) covers variable costs for 20 million tons of capacity; the long-run price will have to be higher. b.Smelters may hesitate to scale down production of individual pots, as this will still incur costs of labour or other non-material costs, as well as additional costs in having to rebuild and reline the pots. c.Not all producers are subject to the same pressures, e.g., variable costs differ significantly between different smelters (different size, efficiency, tax breaks, power agreements). Government-run facilities may have more financial support due to their social role in addition to pure production, such as securing raw materials supply for domestic industries, as well as providing jobs for local communities. 3.Given a CAGR of 2% per year, we estimate total aluminum demand to be 27 million tons in 1998. Assuming that inventories are zero, and primary demand accounts for 74% of total supply, this would imply primary demand of 20 million tons. 4.To produce 20 million tons, the price would be around $1,490 per ton. 5.The reduction in inventories and stabilization of the price level depends on the success of the MoU. Other producers may not look favorably on you opening a new smelter when they have had to cut down on production.

Concepts Of Effective Communication Management Essay

Concepts Of Effective Communication Management Essay Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW In the literature review section, the opening part will be about the concepts of communication and effective communication in an organisation along with a brief overview about the principles of effective communication. Next are the models of communication which will be elaborated with the help of various authors and from academic journals. Following that, the main theories of the types of communication, communication channels and communications systems will be discussed and compared with reference to the local authority. Furthermore, the purpose of communication in an organisation will be disseminated. In addition, the benefits of effective communication will be discussed along with the different costs encountered in communicating through the different levels. The literature review will help to formulate the research questions as well as to establish a relevant methodology to carry out the research. 2.1 Definition of Communication Work needs communication. Communication in every organisation is the way people get their work done and get recognised for their contributions. As such, people at BRDC will communicate to plan services, coordinate manufacturing and delivery, hire, train, motivate employees and so on. According to Tyson and Jackson (1997), The problem is in the definition of the word communication. It covers a great deal and includes not only the actual words used, but, also, the tone of voice, pitch situation in which it takes place and so on. Despites these difficulties, some ideas that convey a fairly good picture of what communication is all about are proposed by different authors. Communication is a process in which people who occupy differing environments exchange messages in a specific context via one or more channels and often respond to each others messages through verbal and nonverbal feedback. (Alder, R.B., Elmhorst, J.M., 1996) Similarly, Baskin and Aronoff (1980) have defined communication as the exchange of messages between people to achieve shared meanings. According to Carell et al, (1995), Communication is the glue that binds various elements, coordinates activities, allows people to work together and produces results. Cole (1993), on the other hand, defines communication as the process of creating, transmitting and interpreting ideas, facts, opinions and feelings. It is a process that is essentially a sharing one an interchange between two or more persons. As defined by the authors, by using different means of communication, information and meaning can be transferred between senders and receivers. Communication in organisation is therefore a study of the exchange of words and meanings as the people within and outside these establishments work towards achieving organisational objectives. 2.2 Effective Communication According to Roberts, J. (2009), effective communication is the passing of the right message or information to the right person, in the right way, at the right time, and with the right effect, impact and outcome. Effective communication is a two-way process sending the right message, which is also being correctly received and understood by the other person/s. Effective communication is the key factor to successful management. The principles of effective communication can be reviewed using two approaches namely, the ABC approach and the Seven Cs. 2.2.1 The ABC approach Accuracy This implies that the information conveyed must be as accurate as possible since people can interpret it in different ways. It is important to set communication in some form to allow for variations of information. However, being accurate is not always easy and recipient needs to be aware of its limitations. Brevity This means being concise and therefore the message can be identified and understood. This helps the recipient as arguments do not get lost in a clutter of unnecessary words. However, one must stick to the point as wander off in other areas may cause confusion. Clarity This is achieved through the use of the right language. The audience needs to be considered carefully. Locker, O.K and Kaczmarek, S.K (2007), believes that audiences pay attention to messages only if they seem important, relevant and interesting. However, this includes what language, explanations and examples will make sense to the audience. 2.2.2 The Seven Cs Clear Meaningful language is needed to avoid ambiguity and the messages must be communicated in a way which can be easily understood by the audience. Therefore, words and phrases need to be chosen with care. Concise Brevity, compatible with the complexity of the information to be conveyed and the necessary style and tone, is of the essence. Messages should be free from all elaboration and superfluous detail. Correct The information has to be correct. However, staff at BRDC should check for errors, especially in figures, names and addresses. Courteous In any form of communication, it pays to consider it as a personal address to the recipients. Employees should be polite and use friendly language rather than formal officialese which is a barrier to communication. Complete The communication should fully convey the message, leaving as far as possible nothing out. Audience will be aware that they have everything they need. Consistent The flow of language is considerably helped by consistency of use, such as standardising the person and tense, and sticking to a particular style and tone throughout. Convincing Employees should show confidence and commitment in what they communicate, even though there may be times when they do not actually feel them in what they do at work. The Seven Cs considers a wider range of points and is more developed than the ABC approach. 2.3 Communication Theory Framework 1 Mechanistic communication is simply the transmission of information from the first party to the second party. The first party being the sender and the second party being the receiver. Psychological communication is actually the thoughts, feelings of the sender which he tries to share with the recepients. It also includes the reactions, feelings of the receiver after he decodes the information. Social communication is considered as a result of interaction between the sender and the receiver. Communication is directly dependent on the content of the speech. Systemic Communication is actually a new and a different message which is created when various individuals interpret it in their own way and then reinterpret it and draw their own conclusion. Critical Communication is simply a way with the help of which an individual expresses his power and authority among other individuals. To sum up the communication theory suggests that to survive, every living entity, needs to communicate with others and also among themselves. 1 http://www.managementstudyguide.com/communication-theory.htm 2.4 Communication Models There are five most recognised and accepted models of communication. 2.4.1 Aristoles Model of communication Aristotle was the first to take an initiative and design the communication model. Figure 1 Source: Scribd.com models-of-communication According to this model, the speaker plays a key role in communication. The sender first prepares content where he put his thoughts in words with a view to influence the recipients, who would then respond in the senders desired way. The model demonstrates that the speaker communicates in such a way that the listeners get influenced and respond accordingly. 2.4.2 Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model Shannon designed the most popular of all early communication models. He wanted to guide the efforts of engineers in finding an economical way of transmitting electrical signals between locations. http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/images/Shannon-Weaver%20Model.gif Figure 2 Source: The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Shannon, C. and Weaver, W., 1949) Compared to the Aristotles model, the Shannon-Weaver model is a common communication model used. It is seen as a resemblance of the human communication process. However, it is not analogous to human communication. Mortensen, C.D (1972), believes that the model is only formal, that is, does not account for content. Moreover, he is of the opinion that the Shannon-Weaver communications system is static and also linear. It conceives of a linear and literal transmission of information between locations. 2.4.3 Berlos Model of communication While the Aristotle model of communication puts the speaker in the central position, the Berlos model of communication takes into consideration the emotional aspect of the message. It is an adaptation of the Shannon-Weaver model. Berlos model of communication operates on the SMCR model. In the SMCR model S Source M Message C Channel R Receiver Berlos model of communication Figure 3 Source: The Process of Communication (Berlo, D.K, 1960) This model shows that source is flexible as it includes oral, written, electronic and any other forms of communication. Message was made the central element. Furthermore, it stress that receivers are the targets. The encoding and decoding notion translate thoughts into words and decrypt words of others into terms one can understand. However, it implies that human communication and machine communication are similar and there is manipulation of the message. People misunderstand each other even with the right symbols. With reference to the berlos model of communication, the speaker and the listener must be on a common ground for smooth conversion but this is sometimes not practical in the reality. 2.4.4 Schramms Interactive Model Wilbur Schramm (1954) was the first to modify the mathematical model of Shannon and Weaver. He emphasises that communication is incomplete until the sender receives a feedback from the recipient. Schramm believed that communication is actually a two way process between the first party and the second party. mhtml:file://F:VANDANAHcommunicationsCommunication%20Models.mht!http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/images/Schramms%20Model%202.gif Figure 4 Source: The Process and Effects of Communication (Schramm, W., 1954) Schramm provided additional notion of a field of experience. It includes feedback, context, culture and so on. However, this model accounts for only mutal communication between two parties. This model does not account for multiple levels of communication between several sources. According to Schramm model of communication when a sender passes on the information to the receiver, the latter must interpret it in the desired form and give him the feedback or respond accordingly. The communication is not complete and thus ineffective if the sender does not get the feedback. 2.4.5 Dances Helical Spiral Another important model of communication is the Helical Model of communication which was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 to throw some more light on communication process. This model understands communication in a birds eye perspective and considers almost all the activities of an individual. mhtml:file://F:VANDANAHcommunicationsCommunication%20Models.mht!http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/images/Helical%20Model.gif Figure 5 Source: www.shkaminski.com- communication model Mortensen: As a heuristic device, the helix is interesting not so much for what it says as for what it permits to be said. Chapanis (1961), on the other hand, called sophisticated play: The helix signals that communication is continuous unrepeatable, additive, and accumulative. In short, the helix emphasises the integrated aspects of human communication as an evolving process. However, helical model of communication may not be a model at all as there are too few variables. The model leaves unanswered questions. 2.4.6 Westley and MacLeans Conceptual Model Unlike Frank Dance, Westley and MacLean believed that communication does not start from day one but begins when the speaker receives signals from his external surroundings. This model pertains to a strong relation between the signals from the surroundings and the communication process. The process of communication begins with receiving messages rather than sending messages. Events may sometimes unintentionally occur and signals is received accidentally. (Receives message)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Environment-Sender-then sends message (Communication starts)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Figure 6 Source: www.managementstudyguide.com/westley-maclean-model-of-communication The model accounts for feedback, a sensory field, non-binary interactions and different modes. Westley and MacLeans model describes more variables in the communication interaction. However, it is still two-dimensional. It can therefore be concluded that the six models of communication are all initiatives by great scholars to simplify and help in better understanding of the communication process. 2.5 Types of Communications No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they misunderstood others. Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe. Organisations have recourse to two types of communication namely, Verbal Non-verbal communication. 2.5.1 Verbal Communication Anderson, H. et al (2004) states verbal communication implies that information has been transmitted through speech. In verbal communication words are involved. According to Boolaky, M. and Gokhool, D., (2006) verbal communication is further divided into: Oral Communication Written Communication Oral Communication In the communication process, oral communication refers to spoken words. It can either be a conversation over the phone or face-to-face communication or on the voice chat on the Internet. At the BRDC, oral communication is vital as it is easier to get feedback by observing facial expressions and asking questions and provides more opportunity to get attention and keeping interest. However, Desmonds W. Evans (1990) argued that Oral communication is volatile, that is, major decisions cannot be recorded and thus cannot be saved for future reference. Written Communication In contrary, written communication can be either via emails, letters, faxes, reports, memos and so on. The advantages are that highly technical topics can be presented using words and diagrams and provides a permanent record that can be referred to from time to time or passed on to others. However, Kushal, S.J and Ahuja, S., (2010) argues that written communication is unfit for uneducated person, it is a wastage of time, delays feedback and no clue about real intentions and emotions. They further discuss that to ensure effectiveness of written communication, it should be short and simple, complete, avoid jargons and so on. 2.5.2 Non Verbal Communication Actions speak louder than words. Kaye, M. (1994) Fromkin and Rodman (1983) suggest that up to 90 per cent of the communication process takes place non-verbally. Courtland, L.B, et al (2010) defined non-verbal communication as the interpersonal process of sending and receiving information, both intentionally and unintentionally, without using written or verbal message. He further stress that non-verbal communication is vital as it helps to strengthen a verbal message. In contrast to verbal communication, non- verbal communication includes overall body language of the person who is speaking, which will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and overall body movements. It can also be in the form of pictorial representations, signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings. Kushal, S.J and Ahuja, S., (2010) states that non-verbal communication are reliable, efficient, helps establish credibility and leadership potential, accurate understanding of attitudes. However, they argues that there is lack of secrecy, useful for small pieces of information, gestures can be misunderstood, it is necessary for both parties to face each other, lack of written proof, more difficult to study and fails to discuss past events and ideas. Verbal and Non- verbal communication are important in an organization. BRDC must ensure the effectiveness of the types of communication as there are both advantages and drawbacks. 2.6 Communication Channels Communication is now done through variety of channels ranging from nonverbal signals to very sophisticated communication media and technology. The communication that takes place in the organisation can be categorised as formal and informal. Formal communication can take place in two ways: Vertical Horizontal 2.6.1 Vertical Communication It moves between individuals at different levels in an organisation (Taylor, 2005). Vertical communication in classical management hierarchy can be: Upward Downward Upward Communication It refers to information flow from the lower levels of a hierarchy to the upper levels. Employees use this channel to communicate suggestions, grievances and progress of work (Boolaky and Gokhool, 2006). In addition, Courtland, L.B, et al (2010) pointed that executives can solve problems and make intelligent decisions. It is good to taking feedback on policies and takes corrective action. However, it does not transfer realistic message. Downward Communication Information flows from a higher level to a lower level in a hierarchy. Management uses this channel to inform employees about policies, plans, job instructions and feedback (Boolaky Gokhool, 2006). The advantages of downward communication are that it is appropriate for giving instructions and ensures that everyone is working towards goals and objectives. On the other side of the coin, information can be distorted as it goes down and there is lack of openness between managers and employees 2.6.2 Horizontal Communication Horizontal communication is both task related and informal and occurs between people on equal footing in the hierarchy (Postmes, 2003). Further, Taylor, S. (2005) stress the need of employees to corporate and share. It can take various forms like meetings, face to face exchange, group discussions and telephone conversations. Its objectives are coordination, cooperation and integration. Informal communication as defined by Courtland, L.B, et al (2010) is referred to as the grapevine that encompasses all communication that takes place outside the formal network. Similarly, in the words of Thill and Bovee, The informal communication network carries information along the organisations unofficial lines of activity and power. Kushal, S.J and Ahuja, S., (2010) proposes some advantages of formal communication such as it is dynamic, speedy communication as no formal line of communication exist, multi-dimension as topic of communication varies and it is supplementary to formal channels. The authors however debated that informal communication results in distortion of communication as it carries half-truths and rumours. There is also the existence of erratic message. It can be deduced that the channels of communication in an organization will depends on the structure of the organization. 2.7 Communication Systems Communication systems can be divided into those using an intranet, those using the written word such as newsletters, circulars, and notice-boards, memo, fax, and those using oral methods such as meetings, briefing groups and, telephone amongst others. (Armstrong, 2006) Communications through an intranet system Organisations are increasingly relying on an internal e-mail system (the intranet) to communicate information, especially in workplaces where all or most of the employees have direct or indirect access to a computer. The advantage of intranet communications is that they can be transmitted swiftly to a wide audience and thus saves a lot of time. Fax messages Similarly to the intranet system, a fax machine is relatively inexpensive. Fax transmits and receives any kind of message- handwritten, printed, diagrams, photographs. It takes only seconds to transmit a fax message, depending on the length of the document. Due to its versatility and speed, it is often used between divisions or branches of the same company instead of telephone or memos. Circular letters A Circular letter is one that is sent out to many people at the same time. The letter may be prepared once and then duplicated. It is sent for the following reasons: Inform staff of new policy matters Announce opening of a new office/branch Notice-boards Notice-boards are used to bring special items to the attention of all staff. It is an obvious but frequently misused medium for communications. The biggest danger is allowing boards to be cluttered up with uninteresting or out-of-date material. Its advantage is that a written record of the message is kept. Memos It is a written communication from one person to another or a group of people within the same organization. Its purpose is to remind someone of action required, request decisions actions and provide information of any kind. Telephone Telephones are a point-to-point communication system whose most basic function is to allow two people separated by large distances to talk to one another. In any organisation the person on the phone represents the company and gives an impression of the company to the outside world. Meetings Meetings enable face to face contact of a number of people at the same time. They provide a useful opportunity for sharing information, making suggestions and proposals, taking decision and obtaining instant feedback. 2.8 Purposes of Communication The main purposes of communication in organisation are as follows: Organisational Communication Express feelings and emotions Achieve coordinated action Share information Organisation goals Task directive Results of efforts Decision making Source: adapted from Moorhead and Griffin (1992) 2.9 Benefits of Effective Communication Taylor (2005) argues that if organisations want to be successful in todays world, good communication at all levels is essential. The benefits that can be achieved are: Stronger decision-making and problem solving Upturn in productivity Convincing and compelling corporate materials Clearer, more streamlined workflow Enhanced professional image Sound business relationships Successful response ensured In addition, Courtland, L.B, et al (2010) found that effective communication strengthens the connection between a company and all those groups affected in some way by the companys actions. 2.10 Barriers to effective communication Maini Morrel-Samuels (2006, p.38) establish that most large organizations are plagued by serious communication problem, the difficulties are especially prominent in large organisations where precise collaboration is critical. Robbins (1998) identifies the following barriers to effective communication: Filtering, selective perception, defensiveness and language. Filtering Filtering refers to sender manipulating information so that the receiver will see it more favourably. Filtering also takes place between the supervisor and the manager, and in fact, from one level to the next. Selective perception Selective perception takes place when the receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivation, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers of information also associate their interests and expectations into communication as they decode them. Defensiveness Defensiveness occurs when people try to defend their position because of certain threats. They have a tendency to engage in such behaviours as verbally attacking others, making sarcastic remarks, being overly judgmental, and questioning others motives. Therefore, when individuals interpret anothers message as threatening they often respond in ways that blur effective communication. Language Words and term means different thing to different people. Age, education and cultural background are three of the more obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and the definition he or she gives to words. In an organisation, employees usually come from different backgrounds and therefore have different patterns of speech. In addition to Robbins, Taylor (2005) suggests the following barriers to communication: Emotional responses Communication cannot succeed if a person is highly emotional about the topic concerned. Problems may arise from insecurity, fear, anger. If emotions are high on the part of the sender or recipient, then it would be better to wait for a while before trying to put the message. Systems In any organizations there should be prescribed procedures for getting messages to the people who need them. Without such systems there can be no effective communication. Courtland, L.B, et al (2010), on the other hand, point out the following: Competing messages One must compete with other messages that are trying to reach the audience at the same time. It is essential to come up with messages that the audience will care about as any messages that are more compelling can pull the audiences attention away. 2.11 Trends in communication Todays world has developed rapidly from an industrial age to an information age. Owing to technological advancement, methods of working and composition of groups are affected. In the words of Courtland, L.B, et al (2010), todays business rely heavily on technology to facilitate the communication process. However, they argued that the benefits of technology are not automatic. Inappropriate used technology can hinder communication. Traditionally, communications in business were hierarchical with messages being passed up and down the chain, often with secretaries acting as a filter between managers and staff (Taylor, 2005). Network has now replaced the hierarchical model with email, every member of staff is able to communicate directly with everyone else. Information can therefore be distributed more efficiently around the organisation. It can be deduced that changes in organisational forms have made communication increasingly important to overall functioning of the organisation. However, technology is not a replacement but only a tool to help communication to take place effectively. 2.12 Ethical Communication According to Werner David Management is in essence the act of communication, for management processes are linked to the receipt of information and its valid interpretation which results in effective decision making. A perception of ethical foundation is essential for those employed in communication. A variety of theories exist that link organisation communication with its ethical underpinning. Courtland, L.B, et al (2010) is of the opinion that to ensure ethical communication, three elements are required namely, ethical company leadership, ethical individuals and policies and structures to support employees to make ethical choices. Moreover, they pointed out that these three elements need to work in harmony. The authors further argued that unethical communication can manipulate audiences in ways such as plagiarism, omitting essential information, selective misquoting, misrepresenting numbers, distorting visuals, failing to respect privacy. Ethical communication is true in every sense. Many organisation establish ethics policy by providing a written code of ethics to help employees determine what is acceptable. For example, at BRDC, employers establish clear ethical guidelines and detailed code of conduct addressing areas like health and safety, protection of the organisations assets and information, conflicts of interest and so on. 2.13 Contemporary issue in communication 2.13.1 Cross-Cultural communication Courtland, L.B, et al (2010) defined cross-cultural communication as the process of sending and receiving messages between people whose cultural backgrounds could lead them to interpret verbal and non-verbal signs differently. Munter (1993) come forward with the difficulties in cross-cultural communication like barriers caused by semanties, connotations, tone differences, differences among perceptions. Adler (1991), on the other hand, as reported by Robbins (1998), provides the following recommendations; assume differences until similarity proven, emphasis description rather than interpretation, practice empathy and treat interpretation as a working hypothesis. In every organisation, culture influences the sending and receiving of messages. Therefore, to communicate effectively, BRDC need to grasp cultural differences and handle them to open up opportunities throughout the world. Moreover, BDRC will be able to maximize the contributions of staff in a diverse workforce.